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Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students

The following page numbers refer to David Sousa’s How the Brain Learns to Read, 2nd Edition.

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10 Things About Dyslexia Every Teacher Needs to Know

• A basic reading achievement level for 4th grade would be understanding the text’s overall meaning, making obvious connections, and making simple inferences (p. 118).
• A proficient 4th grader can also provide inferential as well as literal information. They can make inferences, draw conclusions, and make connections to their own experiences (p. 118).
• An advanced 4th grader can generalize about topics and demonstrate an awareness of how authors compose and use literary devices. In addition, they can judge critically and give answers that indicate careful thought (p. 119).
• Although females scored slightly higher than males on reading achievement testing, the difference was insignificant (NAEP 2011) (p. 119).
• Educators must reexamine how and when they identify students with reading problems and their steps to help these at-risk students (p. 119).
• Lower scores among certain cultural groups are related to inadequate reading instruction in the lower SES schools, social and cultural conditions, and physical causes (p. 121).
• Many children have reading problems only because they do not get adequate instruction in decoding. Therefore, children need systematic focused practice decoding actual words (p. 121).
• Children who do not get the above fail to develop a rich mental lexicon essential for promoting fluency and comprehension (p. 121).
• To successfully understand a language, children need: a rich vocabulary, an appreciation of semantics, what they know about the real world, an understanding of the syntax of the language, and be attuned to the phonology of the language, not to confuse words like chair and cheer (p. 121).
• High-poverty areas often compete for limited resources and outdated programs and methodologies. As a result, these children may not be reading disabled, just never adequately taught (p. 121).
• Social conditions that impact inner-city schools include limited teacher training, large class sizes, absence of literature in the home, and poor parental support (p. 121). Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students
• Schools need to focus more on the direct connections between what we are learning about how the brain learns to read and the linguistic barriers interfering with that learning (p. 122).
• If the home language is different from the school’s, it can cause poor reading achievement ~ hip hop and rap music have increased the impact of African American Vernacular English (p. 122).
• Native dialect or language differs significantly from what is learned at school (p. 122).

Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students

• Teachers need to use some of the linguistic attributes of AAVE and Spanish to help children pronounce, decode, and understand standard English (p. 122).
• Physical causes of reading problems include environmental factors of limited exposure to language in preschool, resulting in little phoneme sensitivity, letter knowledge, print awareness, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. Physical factors include speech, hearing, visual impairments, and substandard intellectual capabilities. Any combination of environmental or biological factors makes diagnosing a reading disability complex (p. 122).
• Some children’s problems in early brain development affect their ability to process their language sounds and eventually decode written text. This developmental deficit appears to be the most common cause of reading difficulties and results in a lifelong struggle with reading (p. 123).
• Developmental dyslexia is when the child experiences unexpected difficulty learning to read despite adequate intelligence, environment, and normal senses. It is a spectrum disorder that has a genetic component. 5-15% of US school children have it (p. 123).
• Neuroimaging studies have established significant differences in how ordinary and dyslexic brains respond to specific spoken and written language, which may lessen with appropriate instructional interventions (p. 124).
• Scientists have been searching for what causes reading problems, but this is difficult due to the many sensory, motor, and cognitive systems involved in reading. Struggling readers can have impairments in any area, but not all have dyslexia. Instead, auditory processing, low IQ, the complexity of English orthography, or a poor educational environment can explain reading problems in some children (p. 124).Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students
• Linguistic causes of reading problems:  phonological deficits, differences in auditory and visual processing speeds, varying sizes of brain structures, memory deficits, genetics, and brain lesions (p. 124).
• Phonological deficits:  phonological information is used by working memory to integrate and comprehend words in phrases and sentences. Studies show phonological operations are impaired in people with dyslexia (p. 124).
• Temporal processing impairment ~ differences in processing auditory and visual speeds ~ could explain symptoms common in dyslexia (p. 124).
• Suppose the auditory processing system is impaired and lags behind the visual processing system. In that case, the child’s eye is scanning g in dog while d is still being processed in the auditory system (p. 125).
• A computer program called Fast ForWord was designed to help poor readers slow down visual processing to allow the auditory processing time to recognize the initial phoneme. This program gives excellent results. (p. 126).
• Temporal processing impairment may lessen as children with reading problems, including dyslexia, mature into adults (p. 126).
• Dyslexic brains are structurally different than non-dyslexic brains (p. 126).

• The dyslexic brains of 16 men studied had less gray matter in the left temporal lobe, frontal, and cerebellum than non-dyslexic subjects. Having less gray matter/fewer neurons in the left lobe (Wernicke’s area) and frontal lobe (comprehension area) could contribute to dyslexia (p. 126).
• Hyperactivity sensed in Broca’s area may be an attempt to compensate for insufficient activation in the brain’s decoding sites (p. 126).
• People with dyslexia have visual analysis and phonological decoding areas that are insufficiently active and dysfunctional (p. 126).
• Poor readers have deficits in phonologic memory. Memory deficits could result from difficulties with cognitive processing in the frontal lobe, which could be a developmental delay system (p. 127).
• 3-4x more boys are identified with reading problems than girls. So maybe girls aren’t being identified. However, studies show girls are affected (p. 127).
• Studies show that boys are skilled in reading but have poorer writing skills. Therefore, by assessing reading/writing separately, fewer boys may be identified as poor readers (p. 127).Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students
• PET scans show lesions in the left occipitotemporal area of the brain ~ the visual word form area ~ of dyslexic people. The amount of blood flowing to this brain region predicted the severity of dyslexia. Lesions and reduced blood flow would hamper the ability of this patch of neurons to decode written text (p. 127).
• Impairments in reading and oral language are NOT restricted to problems with linguistic processing (p. 128).
• The inability to detect and discriminate sounds is related to the auditory processing of sound waves and not distinguishing phonemes as part of phonological processing (p. 128).
• Some people with reading disorders have sound frequency impairment because reading involves sounding out words in the auditory processing system (p. 128).
• The inability to detect tones within noise is another nonlinguistic impairment that affects learning to read. The child cannot distinguish phonemic tones with incoming auditory information (p. 128).
• When children have reading difficulties, their auditory processing skills should be evaluated (p. 128).

• Studies show a strong correlation between deficits in the visual magnocellular system (visual) and dyslexia (p. 129).
• Imaging studies show many people with dyslexia have processing deficits in the cerebellum. For example, 75% of subjects with dyslexia had smaller lobes on the right side of the cerebellum (p. 129).
• Deficiencies in the cerebellum could result in problems with reading, writing, and spelling (p. 129).
• Cerebellar deficit delay could start as an infant. Less motor skill coordination could mean less speech articulation and fluency, leading to less sensitivity to onset, rime, and phonemic language structure (p. 129).
• Handwriting problems ~ could be due to cerebellar deficit due to lack of coordination and timing of different muscle groups (p. 129).
• Problems with spelling ~ poor phonological awareness, trouble with word recognition, and difficulties in automating spelling rule skills (p. 129).
• Will it help to compose text on keyboards? (p. 129).
• Deficits in visual and auditory perception, memory, and motor coordination account for many reading disorders. Analyzing these differences leads to a better understanding of reading disorders and treatment (p. 129).
• ADHD ~ developmental disorder characterized by difficulty focusing and sustaining attention. It is a separate disorder from dyslexia, but both may affect some brain regions. 15-40% of children have ADHD and dyslexia (p. 130).
• Dyslexia is present in all languages, even with Chinese characters ~ visual confusion of more than 3000 characters and working memory and recall (p. 130).
• People who speak phonetic languages like Spanish or Italian are diagnosed with dyslexia later (p. 130).
• The best way to spot potential problems in individuals is not through fMRI studies but by observing a child’s progress in speaking and then learning to read. The earlier detecting of reading problems, the better (p. 131).
• Both speaking and reading rely on the proper functioning of the phonologic areas of the brain, where sounds are combined to form words, and words are broken down into their basic sounds (p. 131).
• See spoken language problems on pages 131-132. Delays in these MAY signal dyslexia! These include delay in speaking (1st words should be at 12 months, phrases between 18-24 months), difficulties with pronunciation (red flag if the child has “baby talk” at 5-6 years old), difficulty learning the ABCs, recalling incorrect phonemes (child sees a donkey but says doggie ~ inability to use expressive language and to recall a word on demand), insensitivity to rhyme, genetics ~ 25-50% of children born to a dyslexic parent will also be dyslexic (p. 132).Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students
• Letter naming and nonsense word fluency can be valid indicators of early reading skills, such as oral reading fluency in kindergarten (p. 132).

Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students

• RTI avoids the misidentification and non-identification of reading problems (p. 133).
• Tier 1 ~ careful monitoring and special assistance as needed. Those not making adequate progress move to Tier 2 (p. 133).
• Tier 2 ~ targeted evidence-based intervention. If more assistance is needed, they move to Tier 3 (p. 133).
• Tier 3 ~ more frequent and intensive interventions by a multidisciplinary team (p. 133).
• Three models for RTI: Direct Route, Progress-Monitoring, Risk Index (p. 133).
• Direct Route ~ Tier 2 intervention groups. Screening is done as a result of reading skills measures (ex., word identification). This model is faulty as it may mistakenly identify students at risk (p. 133).
• Progress Monitoring ~ students identified as at risk are monitored for several weeks for improvement. The bad part of this model is that it postpones intervention during the monitoring phases (p. 134).
• Risk Index ~ looking at all variables collected on a student, including assessments, ELL status, and parents’ education level. In addition, they look at numerous measures ~ which is more accurate than looking at a single measure (p. 134).
• Grade 1 most effective screening tools: word identification fluency, letter knowledge, and phonological awareness, with WIF being the strongest predictor of reading ability (p. 134).
• Grades 2-3: fluency in oral reading and word identification (p. 134).
• Studies show in grade 1 using WIF and 2nd grade using ORF ~ scores had correctly identified 89% of students with reading difficulties (p. 135).
• Using multiple measures in early primary grades to identify reading difficulties is critical (p. 135).
• Determining whether a child has consistent problems with reading requires careful and long-term observation of the child’s fluency in speaking and reading (p. 135).
• See pages 136-139 in the text for reading problem indicators at various grade levels.
• Deficits cause most dyslexia in phonological processing occurring in the visual word form area of the brain (p. 140). Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students

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• The NAEP reading scores have not significantly improved in the last decade in grade 4 (p. 143).
• Early diagnosis is key to overcoming learning problems (p. 143).
• Children with dyslexia use different neural pathways and may have to work harder (p. 143).
• Teachers need to run organized, positive classrooms with clear expectations. Avoid saying ‘try harder” because the brains of struggling readers are already expending extra effort. They need slower speed and clearer comprehension (p. 144).
• Capitalize on strengths and use formative assessments frequently (p. 144).
• Children learn in different ways but still can learn. Their current performance may be well below their potential (p. 144).
• The NRP and NELP say beginning reading programs should focus on systematic and explicit instruction in mastering alphabetic principle, phonological awareness, and word identification skills that lead to accurate, fluent reading and comprehension. This is good for low-SES schools and ELLs (p. 145).
• Once students reach Tier 3 in RTI, they are evaluated for possible special ed services (p. 146).
• The development of phonemic awareness is essential for struggling readers. It should contain three elements: Â frequent monitoring system assessing progress and rate of progress, intense small group instruction, instruction aimed at improving phonemic awareness, and the alphabetic principle. In addition, an instructional component can focus on phonemic awareness, decoding, and fluency, guided reading (p. 147).
• When teaching phonemic awareness, teachers must remember:  continuous sounds before teaching stop sounds such as /s/, /m/, /f/ not /b/, /k/, /p/, modeling, easy to complex tasks ~ start with rhyming, later do blending, then segmenting (monitor progress), larger to smaller units ~ move from larger units of words and onset-rimes to the smaller units of individual phonemes, use concrete objects to represent sounds for struggling readers (p. 147).
• Early awareness of phonemes is a strong indicator of later reading success (p. 147).
• The development of phonemic awareness occurs over several years. The last step in the developmental continuum begins with the brain’s earliest awareness of rhyme (p. 147).
• Children should be learning phonemic awareness in preschool years. It follows this path:  recognize and generate rhymes, segment sentences, blend, and segment syllables, blend onset-rime, and blend and segment phonemes (p. 148).

Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students

• Teachers should select words, phrases, and sentences from the curriculum to make phonemic awareness learning meaningful and fun. Avoid saying letter names ~ just say sounds. Treat continuant and stop sounds differently. Continuant sounds are easier to hear and manipulate. The initial position of a sound is the easiest; the final is next, and the middle is the hardest. Practice all 3. Say how sounds vary based on their position in a word. Be aware of the sequence for introducing combined sounds ~ start with consonant-vowel (be), vowel-consonant (add), then CVC (bed) (p. 148).
• Young students may be unaware that words are made of sounds. Teachers need to have students illustrate, trace, and chant sounds so their brains can process sounds in different ways. Students with dyslexia have difficulty recognizing and processing phonemes. Those with phonological problems should learn mouth formation. Place hand in front of the mouth when making voiced sounds (p. 149).
• Recognize isolated sounds ~ alliteration helps. Count words, syllables, and phonemes ~ it is easier for a child’s brain to perceive words and syllables than individual phonemes. Don’t write a sentence from the curriculum ~ children should focus on listening. They use tokens to indicate word numbers. Synthesizing sounds ~ say onset /b/ then rime /and/. They put the word together (p. 149).
• Matching sounds to words ~  show pictures, like a picture of a kite, and they isolate beginning letter sounds. Identifying the position of sounds ~ teach that words have a beginning, middle, and end like in a train ~ engine/passenger/caboose. Segmenting sounds. Associating sounds with letters ~ play phoneme Bingo ~ have letters on a Bingo grid but only call out the sound (p. 150).
• Compound Phonemic Awareness ~ “Do dog and deer begin the same?” This is comparing two words. Students can match one word to another word. One game is to have pictures on dominoes. Children have to match those that have the same beginning or ending sound. Another game is having pictured cards face down. Children draw cards and try to match the beginning or ending letter sounds. Or play a Bingo game with pictures ~ chips go on if it has the same beginning or ending letter sound as the teacher says (p. 151).
• Children have to be at least 7 to be able to delete sounds. Segmentation and letter names must be mastered first (p. 151).
• Deleting parts of a compound word, identifying the missing sound ~ focus on deleting the initial or ending sounds first. Say ate/late. What is missing? Deleting a sound from a single word  ~ separate g from glove. Use words that result in another real word: glove/love, snap/nap, and spot/pot. Then say a word aloud like mother, and have them say it with the initial sound missing. Use visuals (p. 151).
• Young brains develop an awareness of onsets, rimes, and syllables before phonemes. Onsets: initial sounds that change the meaning of a word. Rime: vowel and consonant combination that stays as an ongoing series (p. 152).
• To teach rhyming, use rhyming literature, word family charts, direct instruction~ show three pictures, which two rhyme (p. 152).
• Best research-based programs for struggling readers do not involve technology due to a lack of teacher intervention. In addition, computer-based programs are not intense enough. Success for All, Direct Instruction/Corrective Reading, Peer Assisted Learning Strategies, Reading Recovery, Targeted Reading Intervention, Quick Reads (p. 154) are the best.
• RTI is necessary. 1:1 teaching for the most reading disabled, continuous intervention over the years, and more teacher professional development is best (p. 154).
• Reading fluency comes from over-learning and repetition. The NRP (2000) suggests repeated oral reading with teacher feedback and guidance ~ guided repeated oral reading (p. 156).
• Repeated oral reading of unfamiliar vocabulary helps build accurate neural representations of the vocabulary and enhances comprehension. When readers mispronounce, they don’t have an accurate mental representation of the word and have difficulty storing or retrieving related information (p. 156).

Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students

COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES FOR OLDER READERS ~ Direct teaching and corrective feedback are required at first.

• Using questioning strategies is especially important because they do not self-question or monitor their reading (p. 156).
• Reciprocal teaching: question, summarize, clarify, predict. 1. The leader poses a question (How. . .?  Why. . .?  2. Participants share their own questions 3. The leader summarizes the gist of the text, and participants elaborate on the summary. Confusions are clarified. 4. The leader solicits predictions. The next part is read, and 1-4 continues (p. 157).
• Paraphrasing, self-questioning, and finding the main idea are well-researched strategies (p. 157).
• Reciprocal teaching requires the brain to integrate prior knowledge with new learning, make inferences, maintain focus, and use auditory rehearsal to enhance retained learning (p. 157). Suitable for middle school – college. In a study, those who participated in reciprocal teaching had better reading comp. then those who did not (p. 157).
• Questioning to find the main idea: Students ask themselves questions about the main idea of each paragraph. The teacher provides immediate feedback. As the student improves, the student finds the main idea in longer passages. Studies show students with learning disabilities trained in self-questioning had greater comprehension than those who were untrained (p. 157).
• Story mapping: Story mapping is a good strategy for those with emotional or behavioral problems. Students read a story, generate a map of main events, and answer questions. Students identify the setting, characters, time, place, problem, goal, action, and outcome. It serves as a visual tool. The teacher needs to give direct instruction and expect frequent and independent strategy use (p. 158).
• Strategies designed to improve reading comprehension also improve students’ reading interest (p. 158).
• PASS: Preview, Ask, Summarize, Synthesize. Use cooperative learning. 1. Preview, review, predict ~ helps the brain’s frontal lobe search for clues to determine the main idea. Prediction engages the brain’s creative networks and raises student interest. Preview by reading the heading or 1-2 sentences. Review what you already know. Predict what it will be about. 2. Ask/Answer questions ~ these questions prompt students to search long-term memory to find information to help make sense and meaning. Content-focused questions: who, what, where, why, how does this relate to what I know? Monitoring questions: does this make sense, is my prediction confirmed, and how is it different from what I thought? Problem-solving questions: do I need to reread it, visualize it, and need help 3. Summarize ~ explain in own words 4. Synthesize ~ in what memory network to store new information ~ how the part fits with the whole and what I know (p. 159).
• Collaborative Strategic Reading: Phase 1 ~ Teacher-led ~ Preview (activate prior knowledge, predict ~ talk about info. as we get in movie previews). Click and Clunk ~ These devices help students monitor their reading ~ clicks make sense/clunks are for confusing words/parts. If you hit a clunk:  reread, look for keywords, reread surrounding sentences for additional context clues, look for prefix/suffix to help with meaning, and break the word apart into smaller words. Get the Gist ~ state the most important place, thing in the passage, and the most important idea in as few words as possible. The student should write gists as this improves memory. Wrap Up ~ students generate thick and thin questions, review key ideas, and write to improve memory. Phase 2 ~ Cooperative Learning Groups ~ we are much more likely to remember information when discussing, clarifying, and reviewing it with others. Students of mixed ability in each group. Leader (what to read/strategy to use), Clunk Expert (strategy reminder), Announcer (only one person talks/time), Encourager (gives positive feedback), Reporter (takes notes, reports main idea to the group, and shares a group generated question) (p. 160-161).
• Use cue sheets specific to each role when in the cooperative learning group. CSR Learning Logs ~ students keep separate logs for each subject, and reading materials ~ can be used with narrative and expository text (p. 162).
• Reading aloud ~ 4th-grade slump can be attributed to a significant increase in vocabulary words and irregular pronunciations. Fluency practice needed ~ repeated oral reading, readers’ theatre, partner reading, reading aloud (p. 162).
• Question the Author ~ raises interest level engages in problem-solving areas of the brain’s frontal lobe, and helps find sense/meaning. What is the author trying to say? Why did the author use that phrase? Does this make sense to you? ~ Model thinking aloud and forming questions (p. 163).
• A good summarizer would start with, “If I were the author, I…” (p. 163). Teachers should facilitate discussion, not lead it.
• Attention Therapy to Improve Comprehension ~ Attention therapy that improves visual attention practices leads to better reading comprehension. Reading requires the brain to focus, shift, sustain, and encode relevant stimuli while simultaneously impeding the processing of irrelevant stimuli. Visual attention is the catalyst. Computer-based activities are designed to improve perceptual accuracy, visual efficiency, search, scan, and span. In addition, the program emphasizes improving visual memory (p. 163).
• Studies reveal a linkage between reading comprehension and visual attention (p. 164).Teaching Strategies for Dyslexic Students
• Tutoring for Fluency ~ repeated reading with a model, oral reading with monitoring and feedback, error monitoring, and reading practice (p. 164).
• Simultaneous repeated reading with a tutor is effective for reluctant readers ~ introduce text ~ activate background knowledge, simultaneous reading ~ regulate speed allowing the reader to keep up, teacher and student both pointing to each word; as the student gains confidence, the teacher should soften their voice, simultaneous repeated reading ~ begin rereading, softening voice (p. 165).
• Oral Reading with Monitoring and Feedback ~ pick a text the student can read at 90-95% accuracy. Tutor provides direct feedback on difficult words ~ the aim is to avoid long pauses to build fluency and confidence. Introduce text. The student reads it as fluently as possible. Use a place marker to track the print. Provide feedback immediately as the student reads. Correct errors so as not to slow students down. Keep track of error patterns (p. 166).
• Error Monitoring and Reading Practice ~ practice difficult words in isolation in flashcard practice. 15-25 cards in 3-5 minutes. If a student is stuck, say the word after 3 seconds. Variation #1 ~ word patterns, Variation #2 ~ word practice ~ keep track of errors in a passage and make flashcards of the incorrect words. Only select common words that reflect functional phonemic and structural patterns. Variation #3 ~ sentence practice in context ~ keep track of errors, correct them, and have the student keep rereading until no errors are made (p. 167).
• Oral Reading Accuracy ~ The number of word errors is subtracted from the total number of words and then divided by the total number of words x 100 to yield a percentage (p. 167).
• When getting the reading rate, calculate the words correct first. If a student reads 150 words with 17 errors = 133 words are correctly read in x time (1.5 minutes). Divide 1.5 minutes into 133 words = 89 words correct/minute (p. 167).
• When a child is being tutored for comprehension, select a text that the child can read with 85-90% accuracy and have multiple practices with the same text. (A better text is 90-95% accuracy.) The 85-90% text is difficult, but the child will be constantly monitored. Select a text and ask 3-4 open-ended questions that can’t be answered based on common knowledge. Avoid asking literal, trivial questions. Instead, try “What did he mean when. . . ” or “Why did that happen?” If the child can answer 2-3 correctly, it is appropriate for tutoring (p. 168).
• Improving Understanding ~ Comprehension breakdowns are often due to a lack of fluency. Get a 4×6 index card. After the child reads a 4×6 area, he is to summarize. Help the summary by saying, “I would add. . .” As the student improves, have him summarize longer sections. Go from a single sentence, multi-sentence, paragraph, and so on. The summary should be 1-2 sentences (p. 169).
• Reading to Find Out ~ have the student read for a purpose ~ “read on to find out why. . .” (p. 169).
• Improving Motivation ~ teach children how to learn, not just a set of skills. Have them track achievement (p. 169).
• Brains can be rewired to be better readers! For example, targeted and teacher-directed research-based reading programs that help students build phonemic awareness can substantially and perhaps permanently benefit struggling readers. Likewise, dyslexic brains can be improved through programs that focus on auditory processing and oral language training, resulting in improved language and reading ability (p. 172).
• Test-Taking Accommodations: large simple type font (Arial) with boldface keywords and plenty of space for answers. Make the purpose of the test clear. Do not count spelling, handwriting, or grammatical errors. Give clear/concise directions. Allow additional time; speed does not count. Provide exemplars. Read the questions/answers in math and science, as those are not reading tests. Have a scribe so the child can focus on answers. Maybe have the child use a word processor. Use visual aids. Test where students can take breaks and not be self-conscious. Consider alternate formats, such as an oral exam.
• If your child has reading problems, multiple-choice tests do not give enough context to decode unfamiliar words. Short essays provide a better opportunity to show learned material (p. 174).
• Struggling readers and dyslexics often have trouble hearing all the sounds in a word; they may only hear two sounds in a three-syllable word (p. 175).
• Dyslexic children often have problems with short-term memory, so help the child with grammar and spelling if they ask (p. 176).

Copyright 12/12/2015

Edited on 08/22/2024

Reference

Sousa, David A. How the Brain Learns to Read. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, a SAGE, 2014. Print.